Outside
influences on
the music of Nusa
Tenggara Timur
by
Douglas Myers
Jaap
Kunst, the man
who first used
the word "ethno-musicology",
concluded a paper
presented to the
first Congress
of the International
Folk Music Council
in September 1948
by saying:
"...
I hope you will
have got the impression,
that Indonesian
music not only
deserves interest
from a purely
musical standpoint,
but also has great
value for the
history of civilization.
It
is to be hoped
that the musical
exploration of
the archipelago
- so unhappily
interrupted -
will be continued
as soon as possible,
before foreign
influence, so
rapidly gaining
ground, has destroyed
the object of
our studies; then
there should be
no cause for future
generations to
blame us for having
allowed this most
precious and perhaps
richest of all
musical cultures
to vanish unstudied
and unrecorded."
1.
This
chapter gives
an overview of
the "musical
cultures"
of the eastern
Indonesian Province
of Nusa Tenggara
Timur (NTT) (see
Map 3(i)) and
examines some
of the foreign
influences to
be found in the
music and dance
forms of the area,
many of which
were in evidence
long before Kunst
made his observations.
The only exception
to this are songs
sung in certain
regions at the
time of death.
For this reason
the performances
are categorised
by region rather
than by genre.
The chapter may
also provide an
insight into how
these precious
cultures are surviving
the passing of
the years, at
least in the little
studied area of
NTT.
The
Province of NTT
mainly consists
of islands which
are Melanesian
in character.
The largest islands
in the group are
Timor (only the
western part of
this island),
Sumba, and Flores.
Within these islands
many styles of
music and dance
can be found.
There are many
smaller islands
which are also
important for
their rich cultural
life. These include
Sawu (Savu, Sabu)
and Roti in the
south and the
northern chain
of islands along
the Banda Sea:
Solor, Adonara,
Lembata (Lomblen),
Pantar and Alor
(see Map 3(i)).
In most parts
of NTT, the characteristic
Melanesian circle
dance can be found,
and some of the
accompanying music
is similar instrumentally
to that found
in neighbouring
Irian Jaya and
the Melenesian
islands of the
Pacific. Some
of the folk stories
told in NTT are
also similar to
those of the Melanesian
areas of the Pacific.
This
area has long
been popular as
a source of sandalwood
and for its spices.
Traders from Africa
probably made
contact with this
area quite early:
there are many
legends about
the arrival from
Africa of the
seed of the lontar
tree, which is
common throughout
the province and
is the mainstay
of life on Roti.
"Lontar"
(Borassus flabellifera)
is the local name
for a member of
the sago palm
family. This tree
gives a rich nourishing
juice which can
sustain life very
well. Nowadays
it is fed to babies
in their bottles,
instead of milk.
The sago palm
itself is also
found in the area
and is called
pohon gewang.
The
first Europeans
to visit the area
were the Portuguese,
who established
a stronghold in
both Flores and
Timor over 400
years ago. Indonesian
influences have
always been strong.
Islam came to
the islands in
the middle of
the 15th century
and with it many
influences from
Java (Surabaya
was a base for
the spread of
Islam to the area).
There were also
many liaisons
between local
princes and those
in Java which
were based on
trade and protection.
Sumba, was for
some time under
the rule of the
Dewa Agung, the
Balinese rulers
in Klungkung.
With the coming
of the Dutch presence,
the Portuguese
retreated to East
Timor and more
recently, since
Indonesian Independence
there has been
more influence
from the Indonesian
cultural world.
The influences
of Central Java
are evident because
many of the teachers
of music and dance
came from or were
trained in that
area. The new
nation brought
firstly, national
radio and, later,
national television,
and the music
scene in Jakarta
had an impact
on the villagers
of NTT. Javanese
popular music
is performed here
as it is in all
other parts of
Indonesia: various
styles of dance
seen on television
are often included
in "kreasi
baru" (new
creations).
Change
has been as healthy
a factor in the
culture of Indonesia
as it is elsewhere.
While this book
deals essentially
with cultural
change and response
under the New
Order, this chapter
will also look
at the changes
in the culture
of NTT which have
come about over
a longer period
of time. These
outside influences
on the culture
are often the
result of a change
in political liaison
or, in some cases,
a direct change
of government
from outside.
They are also
brought about
by the various
changes in religious
beliefs which
have swept across
the area. Each
religion or in
the case of Christianity,
sect brings with
it different attitudes
to the use of
traditional ceremonies,
and the music
and dance associated
with such ceremonies.
In some cases,
the ceremonies
vanish completely;
in others, they
are adapted to
the requirements
of the new beliefs.
Indonesia is a
nation full of
wonderful examples
of such adaptations.
It is possible
to trace in the
influence of one
area on another,
the compromise
which has first
been made in the
conquered area
when it accepted
the influence,
which it, in turn
is now passing
on. There is not
space in this
chapter to deal
with such complex
patterns of adaptation
and continuity.
The chapter will
therefore discuss
the types of music
and dance presently
performed and
the influences
which are more
obvious in these
performances.
The music and
the instruments
of the area vary,
and here some
of the performances
recorded in the
author's fieldwork
are briefly dealt
with.
The
adaptation of
newer forms into
the repetoire
goes on and these
take their place
alongside the
traditional forms
or become the
fad of the moment,
only to be forgotten
as time passes.
Since NTT is a
maritime region,
outside influences
have always been
stronger in the
villages near
the sea and the
older traditions
are often found
in the mountainous
regions. Strong
Melanesian influences
are still found
in every part
of the province
and seem to survive
the pressure on
young people to
move out of the
villages to pursue
education in facilities
from their birthplace.
The foreign influencesı
which worried
Kunst do not seem
to have had very
much impact in
this area of Indonesia.
If he were able
to visit the area
today, he would
find few differences
from his last
visit.
The
Circle Dance and
its Accompanying
Instruments.
The
circle dance is
found in most
parts of NTT in
various forms
and with differing
names. As this
is the westernmost
occurrence of
the dance in the
world it points
especially to
the strong cultural
links with Melanesia
and the Pacific
where this type
of circle dance
is also found.
Provinces to the
east of NTT, Timor
Timur and Irian
Jaya also have
the circle dance.
This type of performance
is a major factor
in differentiating
the cultures of
the eastern part
of Indonesia from
those of other
parts of Indonesia
where the culture
has its roots
in the Malay-Javanese
tradition. The
author believes
this dance to
be the oldest
form of performance
still in evidence
in the area. It
is based mostly
on pantun,2 long
epic poems which
usually tell the
history of the
arrival of the
people, or the
history of the
Raja of the area
and the battles
in which his family
have been involved.
In some areas
for example Sawu,
where the circle
dance is called
Pedoa the pantun
are performed
every night for
three months during
the dry season
and after the
harvest. Most
people take part
in the performance
dressed in their
best clothes (traditional
costume). A number
of circles are
formed which usually
consist of about
thirty people.
It is an opportunity
for the young
people to dance
beside the person
of their choice
and, more so,
because it is
performed in the
dark, courtship
rituals keep it
alive for the
young men and
women. It is interesting
to note that this
dance may in fact
be strengthened
by the role that
it still plays
for the young
people in todayıs
society. The pantun
are led by a singer
who stands inside
the circle apart
from the others.
He sings a verse
of the pantun
which is then
repeated by all
the dancers. He
then sings the
next verse and
it is also repeated.
In many places,
the lead singer
has a pupil who
may sing the verse
after him, always
to have it repeated
by the dancers
who continually
move round in
the circle using
a different foot
pattern for each
locality. All
in the circle
link arms so that
it is the foot
movements which
are important.
As the feet move
they often give
rise to an accompaniment
which is made
from some type
of percussion
sounding instrument
which is either
attached to the
legs or the feet
or both. It is
usual in Melanesian
performance to
find rattles of
various kinds
attached around
the leg, or to
the ankle or foot.
These may be local
nuts, or rattles
made of vegetable
matter. In NTT
the rattles vary
in the following
areas.
In
Sawu a small palm-leaf
box is filled
with dried peas
and attached to
the top of the
foot. As the pedoa
is danced, the
peas rattle when
the foot is moved,
and when this
sound is amplified
by many feet performing
the same movement,
the percussion
in the dance is
most effective.
In
Lamahera, small
pandanus-leaf
boxes (about an
inch cube) are
filled with seeds,
and strung together
to form anklets.
Metal bells may
also be strung
together and tied
around the upper
part of the leg.
In other parts
of NTT, the vegetable
and plant materials
have also been
replaced by bronze-age
technology with
small bronze rings
giring worn around
the ankles. In
Timor bells called
giring are used
in a number of
other dances,
but not in the
circle dance,
bonet. These bells
can be up to twenty
in number and
rattle as the
foot is lifted
and put down.
An example recorded
in Solor of the
circle dance hanja
used only the
tambour called
also the bawa
a Melanesian type,
hour-glass drum,
open at one end,
and beaten with
sticks to accompany
the singing.
The
introduction of
bronze into this
area probably
came through trade,
long after it
had arrived in
Java and Bali.
This assertion
is based on the
variety of gongs
found in the area.
Gong types exist
in this area which
the author has
not seen in any
part of Indonesia.
Yet, there is
no tradition of
gongmaking with
the exception
of the modern-day
gong made from
oil drums. Bronze
gongs are now
used in many musical
ensembles, but
are not played
in the sophisticated
manner characteristic
of Java and Bali,
where intricate
gamelan ensembles
with twenty to
thirty players
have developed.
In NTT, the gongs
are normally suspended
from a frame or
a tree and one
person plays one
or at the most
two gongs. Here
gongs are not
used in rows to
produce melodic
patterns as they
are in many other
areas of Indonesia,
for example, Sumatra
and Kalimantan.
Gongs in NTT are
used to give interlocking
patterns of sound
as is common all
over Indonesia,
but in much smaller
numbers than in
Bali or Java.
The number of
gongs used in
performance varies
between three
and ten. They
are usually combined
with a tambour
which is beaten
with two sticks
or the hands.
This can be replaced
by or augmented
with the Muslim
drum, rebana,
which is like
a half sphere
in shape, with
a hole in the
base and is usually
struck with the
hands.
A
factor which still
figures prominently
in the Melanesian
culture of the
region is bride
price; the price
paid by a manıs
family to the
family of the
woman he wishes
to marry. Without
this payment no
marriage can take
place. For example,
a young soldier
who had been posted
to the area was
looking for a
wife, but he could
not contemplate
the cost of marrying
a local girl.
Various places
exhibit a specialised
type of capital
to be used as
bride price. It
is rarely money
as this custom
predates the use
of currency. As
such, the capital
requirements are
still very much
tied to the barter
system. In Flores,
the major item
used in bride
price is ivory.
On the islands
of Pantar and
Alor, bronze instruments
and artifacts
are used. These
include gongs
which can be in
any condition.
A cracked gong
is still usable,
although it is
not worth as much
as one in good
condition. Gongs
are often seen
and used with
their boss missing
and a hole in
the middle. Perhaps
the boss was melted
down to make giring
which function
as 'cents' in
the bride price
transaction.
On
Pantar and Alor,
the moko (see
Plate 1) is also
used as a part
of the bride price.
The moko is a
bronze hour shaped
drum of the Dong
Son3 type, which,
for commercial
reasons, has been
hoarded by families
on these two islands
for centuries.
It can be used
as a musical instrument
in place of a
gong; but the
moko does not
have a very resonant
sound and is mostly
beaten with the
hand, so it is
not very effective
as an instrument.
However, as bride
price, its value
is very high indeed.
One interesting
example of the
use of the moko
was recorded on
the island of
Pantar. The occasion
was an upacara
sunut, (circumcision
ceremony), when
for three nights
pantun were sung
from sunset to
sunrise while
the six people
who had been circumcised
were sleeping
in the midst of
the entire extended
family (about
200 people) who
took it in turns
to sing in two
groups. The pantun
was very long
and told of the
history of the
groupıs coming
into the area
and their fight
to gain control
of the land. It
was accompanied
by a rhythm which
could be clapped.
As it was an all-night
exercise, people
were sitting down
and using whatever
was around to
tap out the accompanying
rhythm. When the
author arrived,
people were banging
tin trays, jerrycans,
plates, buckets,
and anything else
which was readily
available. When
asked whether
the moko might
be used in such
a performance,
they obligingly
produced one and
proceeded to play
it along with
the rest of the
"instruments".
The
bronze gongs were
probably imported
into NTT. The
area has the widest
variety of gong
types the author
has ever seen.
While there are
many bronze sets
still in use;
these days, new
sets of gongs
are generally
made from iron
("tong").
Gong tong are
frequently made
from empty 200
litre drums which
are used to transport
bitumenand other
liquids between
the islands. The
iron gongs have
a good sound and
are reasonably
cheap. They are
manufactured in
Waingapu, the
capital of East
Sumba, and in
Maumere, the capital
of Flores. The
author has not
found any evidence
of bronzesmiths
working in the
area nor heard
any stories of
their presence
in the past.
Another
instrument quite
common in the
area is the gambus.
This instrument
may be of Portuguese
extraction, but
it is also possible
that the instrument
originated in
the Middle East.
It is found especially
in Flores and
on the islands
of Solor, Adonara,
and Lamahera.
It is a longish
plucked lute which
comes in a three-string
or three double-stringed
variety, and is
used to accompany
many forms of
dancing and singing
but especially
the dana dani.
Quite often it
is aalso used
to accompany the
pantun. The gambus
is usually played
while the performer
is singing and
often has a drum
accompaniment
of either the
tamboura or rebana.
It is made from
a single piece
of wood. The opening
in the instrument
for the resonator
is covered either
with a piece of
skin or thin wood.
The instrument
is, therefore,
a rare lute of
the Indonesian
type in that it
is from only one
piece of wood;
but its playing
style and stringing
are more Western
than Indonesian.
4
A
dance performance
which may have
a foreign influence
is found in many
parts of NTT:
this dance is
performed by crossing
two or more pairs
of bamboo poles
and hitting each
pair together
in a rhythm. Dancers
must move their
legs into the
clicking poles
and out again
without getting
them caught. On
Adonara this dance
is called gaweau,
in Sumba it is
called dodokali
and on Pantar
it is called dodaka.
The dance is very
famous in the
Philippines. The
author has also
recorded examples
of it in Kalimantan,
but with an accompanying
musical group.
It is not known
from whence it
originated, but
it could be an
example of a form
which has come
from Indonesiaıs
northern neighbour,
the Philippines,
or vice versa.
Another
possible influence
from the outside
can be detected
on both Roti and
Sumba. On Roti
the dance performance
called foti is
accompanied by
a male singer
who uses a descending
vocal pattern
and a voice production
which is strikingly
similar to that
used in eastern
Arnhem land in
northern Australia.
The vocal performance
is accompanied
by a characteristic
drone-type accompaniment
on the gongs.
In Arnhem land
a drone accompaniment
is played by the
didjeridoo. While
much research
would be needed
to establish anything
definite, the
first impressions
of the music were
that it was similar
to Aboriginal
Australian music.
A second type
of music, a lament
the author had
recorded in West
Sumba, could also
be included in
this comparison.
After hearing
again the similarity
to Aboriginal
music from the
Arnhem land area
the author played
the recording
to an Aboriginal
songman and asked
him where he thought
the music came
from. His answer
was 'the Yirrkala
mob' (Yirrkala
is a town in eastern
Arnhem Land).
The high-pitched
chanting of the
womenıs chorus
in West Sumba
is also very reminiscent
of styles of Aboriginal
corroboree. Both
Sumba and Roti
are geographically
close to Australia.
Thus, the possibility
of contact is
not unrealistic.
Furthermore the
fishermen of Roti
have been sailing
down the west
coast of Australia
for hundreds of
years. 5
NTT,
like its neighboring
province Maluku
(6), seems to
be a melting pot
of many races
and cultures.
Observing the
people in the
port cities, one
can see Micronesian,
Austronesian,
Melanesian, and
Indonesian characteristics
in the smiling
faces gathered
there. It is therefore
not surprising
to find Melanesian
elements in the
music. However,
several performances
contained something
unexpected: the
use of the whistle
as a marker in
the dance. The
whistle is commonly
used in the Pacific
to indicate the
end of a measure
in dancing. The
author has always
associated this
feature with the
heavy occupation
of the area by
troops during
the Second World
War, it being
adopted after
studying the habits
of various sergeant-majors
and was therefore
surprised to find
the whistle being
used as an indicator
in the dana dani
dance at a village
on the island
of Lamahera and
in Timor. At the
dana dani performance,
a plastic bucket
was substituted
for the tambour
and was quite
effective.
TIMOR
An
accident of history
led to the division
of this island
between two European
conquerors: the
Dutch and the
Portuguese. However
the island was
not divided according
to the local cultural
and language barriers
which existed.
It is, therefore,
interesting to
note that the
language and many
of the cultural
characteristics
of the easternmost
section of Timor
in NTT, based
around the town
of Ayambua in
Kabupaten Belu,
are carried across
the border into
Timor Timur, the
neighbouring and
newest province
of Indonesia.
The local language
of the Belu area,
Bahasa Tetun,
is the most commonly
used language
in the western
part of Timor
Timur. The circle
dance of Belu,
tebe-tebe, is
also performed
in the neighbouring
province where
it uses the same
general name;
although it sometimes
has its own local
names, and differs
in that in some
areas it is accompanied
by a drum. Likurai,
a dance using
a small drum placed
under the armpit
of women performers
and which is said
to have originated
in the Atambua
area, is found
alos in Timor
Timur, but here
it is called bakadudu.
To the south of
Atambua, this
performance has
also been recorded,
but it is called
luk lait.
Kupang,
the provincial
capital, is located
on this island.
It is therefore
difficult to find
the culture of
the Timorese in
the area. Kupang
as an administrative
centre has many
government employees
who come from
all over NTT.
While these people
tend to live together
in kampung (suburbs),
the Timorese are
spread out and
it is, therefore,
necessary to go
inland to the
villages in order
to locate the
Timorese traditions.
Here the circle
dance is also
found; it is called
bonet in the south
and tebe-tebe
in the north.
The dance is slightly
different from
those in other
areas in that
it, like oha in
Solor, does not
have any accompanying
instruments or
body percussion.
Pantun are the
basis of the singing
text, but within
the circle seven
to nine people
are chosen as
the leaders and
they are spaced
amongst the other
performers. These
singers take it
in turns to lead
the singing of
the pantun. Other
forms of performances
are benet, bilut,
bso'ot, and lagu
merin.
The
dance bidu which
shows the Timorese
weaving process
and is danced
by girls, is accompanied
by more western-style
instruments called
bijola (like a
guitar with four
strings) and heo,
in the local language,
or fiol in Indonesian.
The latter instrument
is an adaptation
of a Western violin.
Dance signals
were given by
a whistle (the
second time the
author has encountered
this in NTT) called
a suling. It is
said that the
use of this instrument
dates back to
the time of Indonesian
Independence.
This would coincide
with the coming
of Allied troops
to the area which
could substantiate
the theory that
the Allied sergeants,
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