Bali, with its Hinduised religion and rich cultural and ceremonial life,  occupies a unique position in the Indonesian world. Although Bali's past is closely linked with that of pre-Islamic Java, the Balinese did not embrace Islam as it swept through the Indonesian Archipelago in the 15th century. Instead, Bali retained its unique Hindu religion and culture. Moreover, Bali remained relatively unencumbered by Dutch colonial interference until the middle of the 19th century.

The Majapahit Legacy

From at least the 11th century Bali had been incorporated into the cultural, social and, intermittently, also the political world of Java. According to Balinese historical traditions, Bali was conquered in 1334 by Javanese expeditionary forces sent by the famous Majapahit Prime Minister, Gajah Mada. A Javanese noble, Kresna Kapakisan was sent to rule over the newly subdued island with the help of a number of other Javanese nobles. The first capital was established at Samprangan. On the death of Kresna Kapakisan, his son and successor, Dalem Samprangan, proved to be an ineffectual leader. He was soon deposed by his younger brother, Dalem Ketut Ngulesir who moved the capital to Gelgel. The Balinese court was modelled on that of Majapahit in Java, and the Balinese came to see their own political and cultural world as directly linked to that of pre-Islamic Java. The majority of present day Balinese noble families trace their origins back to these founding ancestors from Majapahit Java.

One of the Balinese customs that shocked European observers, was the self immolation of wives on their husband's funeral pyre. (After de Bry, 1598).

The Gelgel Dynasty

Details of the early Gelgel rulers are sketchy, but in the mid–16th century, one of Bali's most famous rulers, the legendary Baturenggong, came to the throne. With his accession, Bali entered its golden age. Together with his court priest Nirartha, who came as a refugee from Javanese Islam and who is considered to be both the progenitor of all brahmana descent groups and instigator of the caste system in Bali, Baturenggong ruled over a land of peace and prosperity in which literary and cultural activity flourished. Balinese chronicles record that during his reign Bali's hegemony extended westward to incorporate the eastern part of Java as far as Pasuruan, and eastwards to include the adjacent islands of Lombok and Sumbawa. 

The 17th century, by contrast, saw a weakening of the centralised power base in Gelgel. Disputed succession and internal dissension reached a crisis point and during the reign of Baturenggong's grandson, Di Made, the Gelgel dynasty came to an end when the rebel Prime Minister, Maruti, seized power. In 1686, Di Made's son, Dewa Agung Jambe, succeeded in overthrowing the usurper, Maruti, and re-established the core line at Klungkung, about three kilometres to the north of the old capital at Gelgel.

The Balinese nobles are described in de Bry's Voyages... as either being carried by slaves, or riding in carriages. The example illustrated here was 'drawn by a pair of magnificent buffalo, themselves strewn with decorations and valuable tapestries. Behind the king in the carriage sat a bondsman to carry the king's sunshade. In front of and to the rear of the carriage marched the king's retinue of public officials, armed with long spears ending in flame-shaped top and other projectiles'.

Balinese Kingdoms of the 18th Century

By the end of the 17th century, the central Balinese state of Gelgel had fragmented into a number of independent kingdoms. Although the Dewa Agung of Klungkung, as direct heir to the Gelgel dynasty, continued to be recognised as paramount ruler, a number of other powerful, independent kingdoms, the most important of which were Karangasem, Mengwi, Badung and Buleleng, co-existed throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. Rivalries and tension between these kingdoms meant that an almost constant state of warfare existed in Bali during this period.

BABAD DALEM The history of the Balinese Gelgel dynasty is related in the Babad Dalem ('Chronicle of Kings ') or Pamancangah. The babad  begins with the tale of the mythical origins of Bali, and details the Majapahit conquest and the rule of each of the Gelgel rulers from Kresna Kapakisan to Di Made. The fortunes of the various ministers and officials who accompanied Kresna Kapakisan to Bali are also detailed in the babad. The Babad Dalem  genealogy is incorporated into many later babad  through which the Balinese ruling families traced their descent. The Babad Dalem illustrated is now part of the collection of the Leiden University Library in the Netherlands (L. Or. 5054). It is made from strips of lontar palm leaf, bound together.

BALINESE ILLUSTRATION OF A SCENE FROM THE BHARATAYUDDHA

Balinese–Dutch Interactions of the 19th century

After the failure of the Dutch to form an alliance with the Balinese against the Islamic rulers of Java and Sulawesi, at the beginning of the 17th century, the Balinese and Dutch paid little attention to each other for the next 200 years. In the early 19th century, however, political and economic imperatives, particularly the lucrative slave trade, the question of salvage rights to vessels shipwrecked on the Balinese coast and the increasing English presence in the region, brought Bali once again under Dutch scrutiny. Although at the time of the first Dutch contact in 1597 Bali had been a powerful realm united under the rule of a single king, by the 19th century the Balinese political structure had altered markedly. Bali now comprised a number of fiercely independent kingdoms and the Dutch were forced to negotiate individually with each one.

Initially, the Dutch established a presence in the port-based kingdom of Badung in South Bali. However, Dutch interests soon began to assume a more political character. Between 1841–3, treaties were negotiated with Klungkung, Badung, Karangasem, Tabanan and Buleleng, as well as with the Balinese kingdom of Mataram on the neighbouring island of Lombok. Under the terms of the treaties these treaties were to play a pivotal role in the defeat of the Balinese kingdoms.

Within a few years, alleged breaches of the clause dealing with salvage rights resulted in direct Dutch military intervention. Between 1846 and 1849, the Dutch launched three military expeditions to enforce the treaties. The first expedition against the northern kingdom of Buleleng in 1846 was successful, but when the ruler of Buleleng refused to pay the compensation demanded, a second military expedition was sent in 1848 to exact it by force. On this occasion the Dutch were defeated, and they swiftly launched a third retaliatory campaign. In 1849, they bombarded Buleleng into submission and succeeded in ousting the rulers of the easternmost kingdom of Karangasem. When they marched on the Dewa Agung in Klungkung, however, they met such strong resistance that peace was eventually negotiated, and in July 1849 new treaties were signed.

The Dutch Conquest

It was to take another 60 years and require two further major military engagements before the last of the Balinese kingdoms fell to the Dutch. Not all kingdoms chose armed resistance. The entry of the Dutch into Balinese political affairs served the interests of a number of Balinese rulers, particularly those of Mataram on Lombok and the smaller kingdoms of Bangli and Gianyar. They seized the opportunity to further their own political and economic ambitions by siding with the Dutch. Throughout the second half of the 19th century, the fragile unities between the remaining independent Balinese rulers were placed under increasing stress. Rival kingdoms were in an almost permanent state of war. To this was added a succession of natural disasters and epidemics that heightened the political instability.

With the establishment of the Residency of Bali and Lombok in 1882, north Bali came under direct Dutch colonial rule. From then on events moved swiftly as the Dutch sought to bring an end to Bali's independence. Through military superiority, but assisted also by internecine wars and rivalries that ensured the Balinese were never able to present a united front against them, the last of the kingdoms fell to Dutch hands; Mataram and Karangasem in 1894, Gianyar in 1900, Badung and Tabanan in the puputan of 1906 and finally in 1908, Bangli and the traditional centre of Balinese power, Klungkung.

The Balinese state of Gelgel fragmented into several independent kingdoms by the 18th century (see map below). There were constant tensions and rivalries between these kingdoms up to the early 19th century when the Dutch began to negotiate treaties.